Nursing Study Guide Block 4 Final

Study Guide for the Final Exam Here are the rules: please do not call me or email me questions about the study guide. I will answer questions about the study guide during the brief review before the exam itself. You cannot memorize the answers to the questions and do well on the exam- the questions are meant to stimulate thinking, not to be answers. Please remember to review the chapters on shock and MODS as there are questions on this content. 1.There are several ABG questions; remember these also include oxygen numbers so be prepared to determine oxygenation in addition to acid base PH: 7. 35- 7. 45 PCO2: 35-45 HCO3: 22-26 O2: 94-100 2. Review the care of the patient with pneumonia, including applicable nursing diagnoses and measureable outcomes Restrictive respiratory disorder: decreased lung expansion- low PaO2, decreased lung compliance, normal to low P/Q ration, shunt, respiratory alkalosis (blowing off co2, more bicarbonate) increased RR, TV smaller.SOB/cough, dyspnea=how many words can they say in one breath chest pain, fatigue, wt. loss, lung crackles, care: HOB 30deg, fluids to clear secretions, tidal volume–normal breathing 500mL Nursing dx: impaired gas exchange, ineffective breathing pattern, acute pain Outcomes: maintains adequate alveolar oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange, clears lungs of fluids and exudates. Demonstrates effective RR, rhythm, and depth of respirations. Reports control of pain following relief measures. . Review the treatment for TB (look in Lewis), including medications, length of treatment, evaluation of treatment plan, who is most likely to get TB infection, and side effects of the medications Medications: aggressive TB treatment: four drugs for 6 months, (INH, rifampin [Rifadin], pyrazinamide [PZA], and ethambutol) Newer: rifamycins, rifubin, rifapentine, first line for special situations Length of treatment: 6 months- 1 YearEvaluation of treatment plan: resolution of the disease, normal pulmonary function, absence of any complication, no transmission of TB, Most likely to contract: Asians have the highest TB rate, followed by Hawaiians and pacific islanders. African Americans are the highest rate inside the US. (45%) Higher rates of TB infections with patients with HIV infections Side effects of meds: alcohol increases hepatotoxicity of INH, monitor liver function.PZA may not be included in initial phase (due to liver disease or pregnancy) 4. Review the care of a patient with lung surgery, including chest tube management To keep lung inflated & Drain fluid from interpleural space How do you know if collapsed lung: Blood gases, Chest X-ray, Vital signs, Color Air leaks – bubbling in water chamber: check your tubes for air leak & make sure they’re always free of kinks. Don’t milk the chest tube (unless ordered).Continued bubbling = pneumothorax not resolved yet, Constant vigorous bubbling = air leak in system Should see tidaling if not attached to suction >100cc/hr. of drainage = call doc Determine if working correctly by: Monitor output, pain, breath sounds, assess patient breathing, auscultate, ABG, pulse ox (SPO2), skin/mucous membrane coloring, and respiratory effort Chest tube pain is common- give pain meds >7/10 5.Review heart failure: right-sided (acute and chronic), left- sided (acute and chronic), pulmonary edema, cardiomyopathy and management of the patients; remember to review the hemodynamic changes (and values) associated with right and left sided failure RIGHT SIDED HF: (FLUID RETENTION): Corpulmonale, systemic edema, neck vein distention, weight gain, fluid retention, Risk: COPD, hypoxia (pulmonary HTN), causes pulmonary vasoconstriction.CVP = increased; PVR = increased; SVR = increased; wedge = increased; contractility = decreased medication: nitroglycerine to decrease venous return, fix preload LEFT SIDED HF: (RESPIRATORY) DYSPNEA ON EXERTION, back up in lungs, pink frothy sputum, decreased O2 stat, increase RR. CVP = increased; PVR = incre ased; SVR = increased; wedge = increased; contractility = decreased HEART FAILURE: Usually starts out with one ventricle.Nitroglycerine, aspirin, O2, pericardial thump, Lasix, ACE, + inotrope, Class 4, transplant, symptomatic. ACUTE HF: Dig, Lasix, ACE, ARBS, Betas, Calcium Channel, Nitro, and Aspirin, compensatory mechanism is ok. CHRONIC HF: both ventricles can fail (left to right), Dig, Lasix, ACE, BETA, ARBS (if cough), calcium channel blocker, Primacore, compensatory mechanism makes it worse. 2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF HF: 1. Systolic: problems pushing volume out problem with too much afterload: HTN. TX: decrease SVR with dig, Lasix (diuretics), ACE. 2.Diastolic: problem with filling and getting blood in (Hypertrophic cardio) less room for blood TX: Beta blockers to reduce contraction or calcium channel then ACE. If you give them DIG it will kill them (will increase heart working too hard). PULMONARY EDEMA: hallmark: pink frothy sputum, Left- sided heart failure. Decreased albumin, d ecreased oncotic pressure, increased hydrostatic pressure. Dilated: Left vent is dilated (stretched out of shape) decreasing the ejection fraction. Vent is overstretched from CHF or chronic hypertension.Diagnose with chest X-ray: heart is BIG. TX: Dig, Lasix, Ace. Arrhythmias will increase mortality rate HYPERTROPHIC: L vent hypertrophy decreases the ability of the chamber to relax, decrease contractility (athlete, hereditary. ) TX: BB, CCB Constricted/restricted: normal size heart with decreased cardiac muscle compliance. Scarred= fibrosis, radiation, infection (rheumatic fever) control of volume overload is AGGRESSIVE: Ace, Diuretic, Dobutamine, Nitroglycerin/Nitropresside, exercise restriction . Review patho and management of COPD, especially related to acute respiratory failure. COPD: obstructive, exhalation problem, air flows in but then becomes trapped, teach pursed lipped breathing to improve FRC. Clinical manifestations: increased lung expansion, normal to increased TLC, dec reased forces expiratory volume, increased functional residual capacity, decreased vital capacity, increased CO2, O2 sat-80-100, PaO2- 60 Best mask to use is vent mask, most precise O2 is delivered.Barrel chest- chronic hyperinflation of torso Corpulmonale, > expiratory time, wheezing or rhonchi, A fib from chronic overuse of right ventricle TX: beta agonist/beta stimulant=dilates airway (epinephrine, albuterol) Anticholinergic bronchodilators, corticosteroids, mucolytic=thin out secretions, Mucinex or SVN mucomist, pulmonary vasodilators not common, prostaglandin E2, supposed to dilate pulmonary vessels but BP can plummet too.Nitrous oxide can temporarily improve pulmonary HTN but doesn’t improve outcomes Respiratory Failure: ALOC- confusion, restless. Nasal flaring, increased HR, increased BP, increased RR, increased depth, PVCs, Pulmonary Embolism=blue very fast, otherwise cyanosis is a late sign 7. Review management of patients on ventilators, including process of weaning and recognition of weaning failure AC – assist control: doing all the breathing for the patient. It’s providing Tidal volume and oxygen.For your unstable patient NO pressure support needed SIMV – synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation: For weaning: Makes it easier for patient to take their own spontaneous breath. Tidal volume off and O2 on. Pressure support adjunct PEEP – positive end expiratory pressure, Keeps alveoli open by use of positive pressure. Increases FRC – air left in after exhalation. ARDS patient. Little bit of positive pressure at the end of exhalation. Use with SIMV or AC. Keep between 5-10, and not over

Neo-Marxist Contribution to Theories O Social Class Inequality Essay

How far would you say that Neo-Marxist have contributed to the continuing relevance of theories of social class inequality today? Social class inequality can be defined as the existence of socially created inequalities among and within classes. They can be attributed to various factors such as race, colour, ethnicity, gender, income, etc. It is arguable that inequalities that exist in post-independence societies as well as the inequalities which exist between nations can be directly traced back to the exploitative capitalism which accompanied European colonialism. Neo-Marxism has indeed contributed to the continuing relevance of theories of social class inequality in contemporary times. Therefore, the aim of this essay is to identify the nature of Neo-Marxism, its emergence as a school of thought, the main views of Neo-Marxism and its application to today as it regards to Social Class Inequality. Neo-Marxism for the purpose of this research paper can be defined as : a term loosely applied to any social theory or sociological analysis which draws on the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but amends or extends these, usually by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions—such as, for example, psychoanalysis (as in the case of critical theory), Weberian sociology (as in Erik Olin Wright’s theory of contradictory class locations), or anarchism (as in the example of critical criminology). Site ref) This social theory emerged during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s through the Frankfurt School, in Germany. This institution was referred to as the Institute of Social Research at the University of Frankfurt, Germany. The early Neo-Marxists from that school were Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno and Leo Lowenthal among others. Max Horkheimer referred to this new strain of Marxism as Critical Theory in 1937; it is a social theory oriented towards critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to the traditional Marxist theory that just sought to explain it . The fundamental principles of critical social theory is that it should be directed at the totality of the society; that is how it has been organised at differentiating historical times. And in addition it should improve on the understanding of our society through integrating the major social sciences. Neo-Marxism therefore held views that were synonymous with Marxism however they were amended and extended on his principles to keep up with modern times. Neo-Marxism, according to neo-marxist Nicos Poulantzas sought to answer three basic questions that traditional Marxist was unable to deliver a rationale for. These questions were firstly, why did the socialist and social democratic political parties not band together against WWI? (Instead of support for their own countries). Secondly, why although the timing seemed right for a workers revolution in the west it did not take place? And lastly how did fascism take place in Europe at this time? Neo-Marxism is based on the total political-economic-cultural systems that exist in contemporary societies. Neo-Marxists were concerned with the growth of the middle class, which changed the traditional Marxist class view of there being only two classes; to the introduction of a new class -the middle class. They studied the composition of the labour force; that is the fragmentation of the working class and the decomposition of capital; that is the growth in the middle class. They needed to discover whether or not social mobility was beneficial to the lower class or whether or not it leads to the maintenance of the status quo. It is believed that ‘Mobility acts as a political safety valves’. (Parkin) It maintains the ideals of ruling class by providing hope to the working class so they would not want to form a revolution against the capitalist system. Neo-Marxists also found that there was a heterogeneous nature among classes; this was evident there were classes within classes. The main Marxist views that were retained by neo-Marxist are that the theory of dialectical materialism remains. This theory of change implies that the world including human beings is â€Å"Matter in motion† and progress occurs through struggle. They also shared the belief that capitalism is an alienating, exploitative system, subordinating human to the interest of hegemonic elites. The society then becomes one that upholds the values as the ruling class and these values inherently become the values of the people within the society. This was posited by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian journalist and politician who suffered at the hand of the fascist dictator that ruled Italy in 1937. He also writes that inequality exists as people are led to believe that it is inevitable. He also credits religion as the most important forms of metal control; as it teaches people to seek reward in heaven and not equality on earth. They were inclined to bear the inequality on earth as they believed that one day they would be rewarded in heaven. Another principle of Marxism that remained is the idea that only socialism had to be treated as the only form of human organisation worth thriving for. This is imperative as it returns to the workers all the profits of their labour, as opposed to the capitalist system. In which the Bourgeoisie retains their profits for themselves; instead of allowing the proletariat to enjoy the fruits of their labour.

Comparative Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Comparative Politics - Essay Example But knowing the research involved in Comparative Politics, undoubtedly Empirical Approach is not only the most suitable, but also absolutely necessary. Comparative politics is considered to be an area of intense and continuous research, trying to keep up with the world politics, understanding intricacies of international relationships and foreign policies and diplomacies either leading to events or resulting from them. "The study of comparative politics, like the study of the other sciences, has had a logic of its own, a developmental pattern that combined specific questions about the various nations and peoples in the world, specific data, and specific problems, all within a learning process that has taken a specific direction and reached a working synthesis of its own past," Lane (1997, p.2). It is important as it is also the study of different cultures, ideologies, nations and diverse thinking processes. This is different from political correctness and it does not expect all administrations and policies of all countries to be uniform. Actually it celebrates the diversity, accepts peculiarities and the unknown and hence, more natural and less overbearing. It does not revel in terms like barbarians or foreigners. It involves comparing countries, their problems, economic development and democracy, monarchies, military and autocratic rules, violent political dissent and social revolutions, pure and hybrid regimes, predicting the democracies, non-violent political dissents and transitions to democracy, performances of such democracies, design of institutions, new challenges, and in the end, there is a process to compare the comparisons. It also involves in a linear relationship between economic development and democracies, explanations to democratic institutional performances, positive and negative relationships between ideologies and their institutions. Hard facts concerning history, economics, sociology and politics are found through empirism. It emphasizes the collection of empirical data and the rigorous testing of theoretical proposition against this data. "Empiricism: models or theory were non-existent in traditional comparative politics, at least at the level of intention and recognition. Concepts were often employed with little methodological discussion as to their definition and measurement," Bill and Hardgrave in Lane and Ersson (1994, p.2). As unanimity cannot be established in world governments, the interests and attitudes of influential groups that are running the administration in various countries have to be studied under 'Comparative Government' and for this process, there is no replacement of empirical approach. In studies concerning politics, empirical method provides all answers and offers insights to understand diversity. Aristotle, in his days, being disturbed by the infighting and instability of States around him, causing havoc, had studied those governments empirically, by classifying them into three groups and then, by subdividing them into further five groups, according to their wellbeing and wealth, legitimacy, monarchy and tyranny. This is exactly what the present day political scientist does by way of analysing through empirical methods, collecting data, enhancing or condensing the collected evidences and classifying them under various groups, according to their ideologies, forms, institutions, politica l religions, cultures, agendas and national

Ontogenetic change in skull morphology and Mechanical Advantage in the Essay

Ontogenetic change in skull morphology and Mechanical Advantage in the Spotted Hyena (Crocutacrocuta) - Essay Example Adult spotted hyena have durophagy adaptations that include large jaw, adductor muscles, simplified and robust dentition, and pronounced sagittal crest. Feeding of weaning hyena was limited by morphology compared to adult resulting from the study of ontogenetic change in the skull and feed apparatus. The study is, therefore, aimed at establishing as whether feeding of young hyena was limited by the skull shape, skull size, and the mechanical advantage of jaw muscles. The study also seeks to enquire if feeding apparatus is slow in the spotted hyena compared with other carnivores not adapted for durophagy. Various materials and methods were employed during the study. For instant, during sampling, ontogenic series of individuals of age ranging from 2 months to 18 years of 68 spotted hyenas we sampled. Most of the samples were from the southwest of Kenya in Masai Mara Reserve. Their age was estimated depending upon the appearance. On the other hand, to quantify skull changes, ‘2D landmark-based geometric morphometrics was used. Three views of the skull were analyzed that involved lateral cranium, lateral mandibles, and ventral cranium. In the analysis of fused lateral mandible and cranium for adult hyenas, semi-landmarks were used which later digitized by use of ‘tpsDig’. In addition, superimposition was used to remove variations (Holekamp, Lundrigan, Tanner and Zelditch 354). The analysis of change in ontogenetic shape was done as well as analyzing the relationship between shape and size over a given period (Holekamp, Lundrigan, Tanner and Zelditch 355). The ontogenetic trajectories were determined if they differed significantly. As a result, the sample sizes obtained from a pair of bootstrap used varied with ages. On the other hand, size of the muscle and mechanical advantage was determined first using traditional methods. For instant, size of the adductor muscle was estimated across the zygomatic arches by maximum width. The mechanical advantage was

Employment information report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Employment information report - Essay Example After much investigation, I have found that Akzonobel is a Dutch based multinational organization which is known for producing premium quality specialty chemicals, performance coatings and decorative paints. The company has its headquarter in Amsterdam and is divided into eleven business units. Akzonobel employees over more than forty thousand people in over eighty countries. The company is known to be making increasing profits each year and as of year 2014, the sales recorded were around fourteen billion. Akzonobel has a history of mergers and acquisitions. The recent merger took place with ICI paints in the year 2008. Akzonobel is a company where the growth of organization is as important as the growth of its employees. Here, people come from diverse backgrounds where they are allowed to perform freely based on their skills, experiences and talents. With extensive training, mentoring and coaching, the skills of employees are enhanced and the career development is given much signifi cance. Along with a handsome compensation package, the employees are offered a challenging yet comfortable environment where they could build up on their knowledge for present as well as future performance. As mentioned, I would like to apply for the position of HR manager in Akzonobel. After looking at the job responsibility listed on the web as well as interviewing one of the HR managers, I have made a summary of the job requirements and duties. Akzonobel has listed down the features which must be present in a candidates’ profile in order that his application be considered. He must have minimum of master’s degree in human resource, certification would be considered as a plus. The company will prefer someone who has been working in the same position with a multinational organization for at least five to ten years. The candidate is expected to be a local of the country so that he could understand and practice his knowledge as per the geographical

Waste Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Waste Management - Essay Example If the temperature is high then all wastes will be decomposed. Incinerator design also determines the amount of airflow into the incinerator. This determines the level of decomposition of the wastes. High air flow means total combustion while low inflow of air means partial combustion. Total combustion means low quantity of gases. The operation of the incinerator will also determine the quantity of gaseous products produced and their composition. The type of handling the materials are given dictates the quantity and composition of gases produced. Operation determines the temperature of combustion and the level of mixing as well as the amount of air allowed in (Oppelt 1987). Operation also determines the residence time that the combustion process takes and the type and amount of fuel to be used in the combustion Fuel also contributes to gaseous products. All these factors have a bearing on the quantity and composition of the gaseous products coming out of the incinerator The properties of the waste materials also determine the quantity and composition of the gases produced. Different types of waste materials produce different gaseous compositions in different quantities. Waste materials have different physical and chemical properties which result in production of different quantities and compositions of gases (Oppelt 1987).The quantity of residues is determined by the quantity of the waste products that are fed into the incinerator. The residence time of the wastes in the incinerator, the temperature, quantity of oxygen and level of mixing determine the level of combustion hence the amount of residue produced. When there is absolute combustion then little residue is produced (Oppelt 1987). A WAP which stands for a waste analysis plan is the plan that is used as an outline of the analysis done on wastes before they are disposed off. Not all

E-business Foundations and Basic Concepts Assignment

E-business Foundations and Basic Concepts - Assignment Example They are particularly responsible for specifying what needs to be purchased, the features that the product should have, the quantity to be bought and so on and so forth. In case of a more technically complex products, the buyer actually defines the product’s technical specifications. In the following stage the potential supplier who can supply the required product are sought out for. At this stage, the customer involved in the buying process (in this case a business) seeks out for information regarding the products that they require and the vendors who can meet their demand. Majority of the buyers begin their search online and thereafter attend industry trade shows and henceforth establishes contact with the suppliers either through email or telephone. In order to gain knowledge regarding a variety of supplier buyers also tends to discuss with industry experts, consult trade magazines as well as attend webinars conducted by vendors or perhaps pay a visit to their facilities. T he decision regarding the choice of qualified vendors rests in the hand of purchasing agents. The vendors who have been chosen are asked to complete responses relating to requests for proposal. The proposals are then evaluated and the suppliers are selected. Following this stage, an order routine is established and a post purchase evaluation is conducted and the feedback is reverted back to the vendor (Saylor, 2013). The buying process involved in business to consumer marketing is relatively simple and straightforward where the buyers just has to choose the required product and pay for it either through credit card, debit card or cash. The buyers have the flexibility to shop via online retailers which saves them the extra cost of transportation and as well as saves them the extra effort of being physically present in the shop. Instead they can shop online and pay via internet banking, debit and credit card (Ferrell,

Modernization Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modernization Theory - Essay Example Modernization theory states that it is progressive processes whose descending in the society is inevitable. Additionally, the argument follows that the modernization theory as occurs is a desirable development, which entailed the processes facilitating development in the regions where it occurred. According to the theorists, the processes of the modernization theory constitute three varied waves of occurrence. The first wave of the procedural development occurred in the early 20th century. The core happening was the attempt to diffuse the western culture, their technological innovations and the individualized communication styles as superior (Billet 36). The suggested developments were highly selective and addressed the factors of materialism and superiority innovations. This wave of the modernization theory followed the assumptions that with respect to economic development, mass media is the channel to promote the global diffusion of the technical and social innovations essential to the modernization of those societies. Another variant produced in this wave focused on literacy and culture development. It stated that the communication would facilitate literacy and additional skills and techniques that encourage the state of mind towards favourable modernity (Inglehart & Christian 65). This variant encouraged the thinking that an imagination is the alternative of life beyond the traditional ways. Lastly, this wave embodied the need to establish national identity development.

Impact of globalization on the cultural environment of business China Essay

Impact of globalization on the cultural environment of business China - Essay Example China’s economy has shifted from being developing to being the fourth largest economy in the world. This is attributed to the high capital flows across its borders and hence, globalization. Globalization has had substantive impact on the business environment in Chinese organizations. The following paper critically investigates and analyses globalization’s impact on the cultural business environment in Chinese organizations. Globalization is viewed differently by economists and business leaders. According to Lui, Anti-globalists views capitalize on the cons of this phenomenon which include employment insecurity associated by production shifts. Another major minus of globalization is pay cuts due to increased competition associated to opening up local markets to global competition. Lastly, global companies are associated with social injustices in their business practices and unfair working conditions such as slavery and mismanagement of the environment. Pro-globalists maintain a strong view that globalization lead to higher standards of living. They argue that competitive markets lead to more efficiency in resource utilization, elimination of monopoly markets and how it promotes democracy all over the world. To understand what net impact globalization has, it is vital to appreciate that globalization refers to a process based on the formation of a single market of goods, services and factors of productions, including capital, labor, technology and natural resources, covering all the economic regions of all countries. The two main aspects which led to the sudden transformation were sophistication in information technology field and innovation of internet. In this process, national and international markets are combined in to a single complex whole. In the world economy, globalization lead to an increased dependency on different

Dante, Plato, Aristotle Essay Example for Free

Dante, Plato, Aristotle Essay The assignment is poetry v. philosophy. Plato speaks of a quarrel b/t poetry and philosophy. He dismisses the arts while Aristotle defends them. DO we see traces of this quarrel in later traditions? If so, where? And how is it played out there? For this essay, in addition to Plato and Aristotle, focus on Dantes Inferno. (Please look to see if my thesis is clear and strong, my evidence is all relevant, and whether this whole essay persuades you) Throughout his life, Plato strongly believed that the arts and philosophy directly opposed each other. On the other hand, Aristotle defended poetry as an aid to philosophy. Dante, a philosophical poet, successfully synthesizes Plato and Aristotles views in the Divine Comedy of the Inferno without compromising either school of thought. He acknowledges the fact that while the arts have its uses within the material world and philosophy its uses in the spiritual, both need the other to be complete. Both Plato and Aristotle agree that poetry brings about great emotion which has a lasting impact on the individual and society. However, they disagree on poetrys emotional effects. In Meno, Plato believes it results in harm while Aristotle argues that it leads to improvement in Poetics. Upon closer inspection, we see that Dantes Inferno contains a philosophical significance underlying its poetic style. Poetry and philosophy work towards the same end, but in different ways. There is no doubt that poetry is an imitation. What Aristotle and Plato dispute over is the source of that imitation. Plato strongly states that the arts are mimetic, twice removed from the truth. They are an imitation of the ideal entities in the realm of the forms, in which all things are perfect. For instance, tragedy presents multiple possibilities and situations rather than a single essence. In Meno, Platos Socrates discusses the difference between doxa and episteme. Poets, politicians and priests utilize doxa, a type of knowledge that is not mediated through any intellectual reasoning. This further demonstrates the composition of the material realm. Right opinion, or doxa, flees from the mind just as the materialistic body quickly perishes. Socrates says opinion is not worth much until it is fastened with reasoning of cause and effect (Plato 65). He is alluding to episteme, true knowledge that remains in the brain. This is accomplished through intellectual inquiry in the ideal realm. Throughout the dialogue, Menon insults Socrates by saying he looks like a stingray, alluding to a type of numbing-drug. However, Menon proves to have false knowledge as Socrates shows how anamnesis occurs via the Socratic Method. Only when he experiences aporia, the state of confusion and realization of ones ignorance, can he reach true knowledge. The reference to the drug, pharmakon, symbolizes how Menon became numb to the false, material world in order to transition to the divine realm where all things originate. While Plato asserts that imitation comes from the true essence of things, Aristotle believes it has its roots in human action. In Poetics, he examines how humans have an instinct for imitation, harmony and rhythm. We often learn our earliest lessons from mimesis. Aristotle asserts that the only way to reach the ideal is through action. He views it as a horizontal developmental rather than a vertical one, as Plato did. By the process of energia, we move from potential to actuality. This is also analogous to the concept of the material to the ideal. We come out of the cave and into the sun through our own activities. As the arts best represent action, tragedy contains knowledge because it presents psychological possibilities and universal truths about ourselves. Each possible reality may be the ideal essence. Tragedy, after all, is an imitation of action and of life, not men. The stage externalizes whats within our souls. The actors play out the meaning of life which the audience can safely inspect without endangering themselves. This perspective is extremely human-centric compared to Platos divine ideal. For instance, tragedy contains plot that is action-centric and based on the structure of incidents. Unlike a story, a plots events can be resequenced in any fashion. This is like an experiment in which the stage is our lab. A plot can furthermore be split in two ways: complex or simple. A complex plot contains peripeteia and anagnorisis. The latter, similar to Platos Meno, shows the progression from ignorance to knowledge. Yet the characters on stage, even after making decisions, are still susceptible to Fortunes will. Thus peripeteia occurs, alluding to God and the divine realm we ultimately reach with the aid of anagnorisis. There are some things people cant control. However, what we do imitate and control are our actions within the material world. For Aristotle, action was the most significant aim to focus on. In Dantes Inferno, the poet Virgil guides Dante into Hell. Poetry begins to act as a gentler remedy compared to philosophy. It is more relatable to the human mind and physical world. Through catharsis, Dante must eliminate all emotional tumult to become enlightened. This process of catharsis is similar to the movement from the material to spiritual realm. Paradiso, the highest realm, is where true intellect exists and where we become one with God. In the second canto, Dante demonstrates the wickedness of emotions and the materialistic realm when Virgil tells him: Your soul has been assailed by cowardice, which often weighs so heavily on a man- distracting him from honorable trails- as phantoms frighten beasts when shadows fall. (lines 45-48) This is an extremely Platonian perspective. Partially right, Plato believed that tragedy produced cowardly leaders as it appealed to passion rather than logic and reason. Through Virgil, Dante demonstrates how the arts, especially poetry, are effective in cleansing the soul of emotion by experiencing or contemplating it. Much like the Socratic Method in Meno, Dante must become numb to false knowledge via catharsis and begin with a clean slate. He accomplishes this by observing the damned in the inferno. When he passes through aporia, only then will he become enlightened and obtain truth. The shadows are a reference to Augustines visio corporals, the cave of pure materiality, in which false knowledge resides. Dante says in canto one that man must come out of the shadowed forest (line 2) where he is so full of sleep (line 11). All this is accomplished through human action, represented through tragedy and poetry. Furthermore, Virgil symbolizes the coming emergence of Christian Rome through Dante. He has already taken Aeneas to the Underworld, setting up the entire story. Parallel to this, poetry lays the necessary foundation for the coming age of philosophy. Dante uses typology of the inferno to paradiso. Like the Hebrew Bible, the inferno remains incomplete and foreshadows whats to come. The New Testament completes the text, in the same way philosophy does to poetry. Each is interdependent on the other. In the Inferno, Dante fails to read the inscription to the Gateway to Hell, demonstrating how the archaic style of backgrounding no longer resounds in the new age of foregrounding. This method brings to light how the mind reads and interprets with reason. Because the material realm is incomplete, Dante cannot move to this abstract, spiritual meaning without first going through the forest. In the third canto, Virgil describes to Dante how those in hell have lost the good of the intellect (line 18). The mind can never be fulfilled as it is a pure sensory experience. This is proven when Virgil is only able to guide Dante so far. He cannot take Dante beyond the material realm because he is not a Christian. He represents the arts, the non-metaphysical. A higher entity, Beatrice, will lead him to paradiso. Virgil declares in canto one: If you would then ascend as high as these / a soul more worthy than I am will guide you (lines 121-122). Likewise, we can think of poetry, represented by Virgil, as a disguise to philosophy, the eventual remedy of Beatrice. While philosophy speaks of a thing itself, poetry uses metaphors as a transition to reach a philosophical conclusion. It is a vehicle for truth in its own peculiar way, addressing our minds through imagination, sensibility and feelings. Dante can synthesize Plato and Aristotles views because they are working toward one common goal: the divine, the cave of pure intellect. The mechanisms of philosophy are simply a more sophisticated turn on poetry. Traces of Plato are still seen in Dante, especially when he states in the fifth canto: Those who undergo this torment are damned because they sinned subjecting reason to the rule of lust (lines 37-39). However, in tragedy, what seems irrational and absurd to the audience becomes permeated with reason as it speaks the universal truth about ourselves. The arts show there is something beyond human thought and action as the audience learn how we cannot control everything. There is something beyond this human, materialistic world that we cannot begin to understand. This is God, which is exactly what philosophy aims at. It speaks the truth, not only of human action, but of the existence of the ultimate good. In this way, poetry consists of rational thought and intellect. Virgil tells Dante in canto eight: Forget your fear, no one can hinder our passage; One so great has granted it (lines 104-105). We are turning inward to our souls to reach the divine. This also speaks of Gods infinite and unexplainable power. God makes the impossible possible. Dante had to go down into the deepest level of hell to see the divine. This irony demonstrates catabasis and anagogy, the one single movement towards God. Furthermore, Cassius and Brutus foreshadow Judas betrayal. These three make up the material inversion of the Holy Trinity. We are able to see God in Lucifer. This demonstrates the typology from the inferno to paradiso as well as the process of recollection in Platos Meno and Aristotles Poetics. Just as Dante had to move through death to experience life, the reader must pass through poetry to obtain philosophy. All thinking about God involves moving from the material to the realm of the forms. The divine uses metaphors, our language, to help us understand. We are able to indirectly talk to God through poetry as He determines our fate. It was his will to send Dante into Hell. Like poetrys catharsis and philosophys pharmakon, Dante engages his mind as he journeys through the inferno. By looking and contemplating the suffering of the damned, he becomes reconciled to aspects of his life which would otherwise be nonsensical. Both the poet and philosopher seek the existence of God and of the metaphysical. Although Dante recognizes that the arts have limited utility, he realizes how poetry helps lay the foundation for philosophy through the Aristotelian and Platonian method. It has a cognitive function by helping to better appreciate and complete philosophy. As Venantius Fortunatus wrote in his hymn Vexilla Regis, by death did life procure. Likewise, by poetry did philosophy come about.

The Compass: History, and Impact of the Invention

The Compass: History, and Impact of the Invention